Scientific Revolution

500 years ago- present day

  • 500 years ago- Humankind admits ignorance and begins to acquire power
  • 200 years ago- Industrial Revolution
  • Present day- The continuation of unprecedented technologies

 

Spring 2020 Entries

Science vs Technology, The Power of Knowledge, and Advancement during World Wars.

1500s-Present Day

Erin Lager

In 1620, English philosopher Francis Bacon published the scientific manifesto titled “The New Instrument,” where he argued that knowledge is power. The real test of knowledge isn’t whether it’s true, but whether it empowers us. Truth is a poor test for knowledge, and the real test should be utility. The relationship between science and technology is a recent phenomenon. When Francis Bacon recognized a connection between science and technology in the early 17th century, the idea was revolutionary. Following the 17th and 18th centuries, the correlation between science and technology was strengthened. It was only universally accepted in the 19th century. Nowadays, the connection forged between science and technology is so strong that we tend to confuse the two (Harari, 2019).

Science has provided us with numerous tools spanning across centuries, both mental and technological. Our mental tools can help us predict statistical outcomes such as death rates and economic growth. We tend to think it’s impossible to develop new technologies without scientific research, however history proves otherwise. Many technological advancements throughout history weren’t formed through meticulous research and planning, but rather through trial and error by craftsman and commoners. During the 1800s, businessmen and rulers seeking success would often neglect investing in research finances towards physics, economics, or biology (Harari, 2019).

Unsurprisingly, the phrase Knowledge is Power is incredibly relevant during warfare. Our wars are the product of our scientific research and technological development. World War One prompted both sides to call in scientists. These scientists went on to develop a disturbing amount of technologically advanced weaponry, including combat aircrafts, tanks, and poisonous gasses, all in desperation to defend their nation. World War Two wasn’t much different, leading scientists to create atomic bombs and jet-powered aircrafts. Our fixation with creating this much military technology is also a recent phenomenon, the times have changed. We are now actively seeking out the knowledge of scientists, researches who dedicate their lives to experimenting and innovation. Not just for war technology, but for just about everything now; medical research, politics, agriculture, you name it. However, it should be noted how much war influences us to develop and advance technologically. For example, gunpower was invented by accident, yet it was only utilized in warfare during the 15th century, 600 years after its invention. Why is that? Well, gunpower was invented during a time when no one thought military technology would save them or make them wealthy (Harari, 2019).

Citation
Harari, Y. N. (2019). Sapiens: a brief history of humankind. London: Vintage.

Scientific Revolution: Trust and Money

 

The phenomenon that I will be analyzing today is the complicated topic of money lending and more specifically, the evolution of credit. While Harari states that the idea of credit (lending money to be paid back later with interest) has virtually always existed, there have been some vital conceptual changes that have caused it to have a great impact on our world. Essentially, credit allows a person or entity to procure capital that they do not have in the pursuit of obtaining more capital over a longer span of time. Previously in history the foundational mindset was that wealth was a stagnant thing. There was a fixed amount and those who did lend money would do so with a small amount, to be paid back in a short time with a large interest. If you had money you would not look to explore new markets or invest in a promising enterprise. This all started to change with the new mindset that defines the Scientific Revolution, and that is an awareness that there is more to be discovered about this world.

While there is no specific start date of this change to the way we viewed our world, I am going to focus on how the successes of Christopher Columbus changed history. The actors at play here are an entrepreneurial merchant in Columbus and a Governmental system in Queen Isabella. Lending Columbus such a large amount of resources over such a long period of time was rare during this time period and the idea that a whole new trade route was worth exploring for was almost unprecedented. But this is an example of the shifting mindset. We must put forth capital in order to eventually gain more.

We all know how that particular story ends. Columbus accidentally discovers the Americas and a frantic rush begins for the seemingly unending amount of resources that can be found in this new world. What is crucial to remember here is that Queen Isabella expected in some way to get a return on her investment and she got more than could have imagined. There were fertile lands and a easily subjugated work force that could be enslaved to work it. If the initial investment was never made than the untold riches from exploiting this land and its people could never have happened. The collision of massive resource systems, governmental systems, the trade networks and distribution power of the entire African, European and Asian continents and the boundless natural resources and labor of the Americas, proliferated a practice of investing vast amounts of money for long term gain.

The great powers of the day, The Spanish, Dutch, and French, just to name a few, all poured money in discovering and exploiting new resources for their personal gain. Massive plantations using the land and labor of the Americas provided more money to fund further campaigns. In the decades after Columbus’ discovery the world changed dramatically. Most European powers were investing heavily in procuring new resources that could be introduced into the existing trade systems that for centuries had been basically stagnant. During the 1500’s the wealth of the world was growing rapidly and the introduction of substantial, long-term credit in these systems was the catalyst. The outcomes can still be seen to this day. Governments and companies alike look all over the world for resources that they can shovel their resources into in order to make a profit.

Citations
Harari, Y.N. (2015) Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind. Retrieved from: shorturl.at/gFNPZ

Scientific Technology

 

The Scientific Revolution covers the span of over five hundred years, beginning in the 1500’s and advancing into present day society. Since then, Homo sapiens have discovered more about the world we live in, whether that is through the work of sociologists, physicists, or biologists. For this we are to thank our European Empires, scientists and philosophers that had an abundant curiosity about the natural world were sent to explore its boundaries. In the year 1620, an English philosopher by the name of Francis Bacon argued the theory that “knowledge is power”, claiming that the real test of knowledge is not proven by truth but by utility (Harari, 2015). This was a revolutionary idea at the time since no human had deliberated the idea. Centuries later this theory can be proven correct by the strong connection between the development of research in science and the production of technology. The combination results in more effective technology that can help shape advance our society’s future in fields such as healthcare, environmental sciences, and weaponry.

This drawn connection has only recently become evident, in the seventeenth and eighteenth century they became closer fields with the increase of industrialization, but only in the nineteenth century with the addition of capitalism has it become strongly apparent. In the 1500’s rulers did not invest in developing new technologies, new inventions were usually created by local craftsman not by well-educated scholars (Harari, 2015). Rulers overtime began to change their view on technology and science and eventually when the first world war comes around in July of 1914, scientists were called on by their country to create a technological advantage for their side. With the given the money and resources the plethora of new inventions included poison gas, submarines, machine guns, and tanks, but the most significant weapon of them all has yet to be developed (Harari, 2015). The American Manhattan Project successfully developed the atomic bomb that was later dropped on Japan. This moment in history was the point in humanity where we had the power to actually end the world and is now one of many examples of merging science and technology together for a political agenda.

This urge that countries now have to build up their defenses and develop weapons was not always such a priority. Harari uses the mighty Roman Empire as an example, the Roman army relied on their large forces to be disciplined and organized, in order to be efficient in taking over land in battle. They never thought of organizing a research team to create more efficient weaponry, in fact their infantry stayed around the same for centuries (Harari, 2015). The reasoning behind the lack of change in technology is simply because kings and scholars did not see any economic advantage or feel so unsafe that it would be worth the time and valuable resources. In todays society all there is a tunnel vision focus on money and how much we can make.

Citations:
Harari, Y.N. (2015.) Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind. Retrieved from: shorturl.at/gFNPZ

The impact of Modern Medicine

 

As medicine became more modernized and death turned into a question of why and not when, more sapiens were able to live longer and populations began to flourish. This began happening in the middle of the nineteenth century when anesthetics like chloroform and morphine were first discovered. Since, new medicines and cures arrive every day to save our fellow man from the perils of death. Death among infants was somewhere around 25-33% until the twentieth century, and new, safer practices in health led to more people living to become adults. An example of this in Sapiens shows the fate of each of Queen Eleanor’s children, where among 16 children, 10 died during childhood. It wasn’t until her 16th child that she finally had a son who could retake the throne (Harari, 2019). Today the infant mortality rate is closer to 5/1000

Science becoming more ingrained into society meant that people became less obsessed with the fates that their religions promised them, and more open to the idea of discovery. More money was put into scientific development during this revolution, and so people started to question the certainty or reasoning for death.  With that curiosity came about studies and new medicines that would solve common ailments and elongate the lives of humans.  People living longer meant that populations begin to rise. When this happens more food, money, and energy are needed to take care of the growing population. The medicine revolution is what causes the needs of the sapiens to increase at the rate in which they are now. The fact that there are so many people means that space is needed for all of them, as well as schooling and jobs.

More people meant more land was needed for the rising population to live and more croplands would need to be made, more fish to be caught, and more resources to be burned. The medicine revolution is the spark that began the overconsumption and resource abuse that haunts the earth today. Although it is good to believe that the more humans we have and the longer we live the happier we will be, it is important to note that in this way we are going against the forces of nature.

Discoveries made around the logistics of things such as death and poverty caused many people and scientists to begin questioning the “truths” they were accustomed to and led to more scientific discovery and innovation. Whereas people may have once believed poverty was just a product of existence, today there is very little people that are starving to death. People may have once believed death was the point of life (Christianity, Islam) but at this point in history were now forced to admit ignorance or at least question their beliefs.

Citation:
Harari, Y. N. (2019). Sapiens: a brief history of humankind. London: Vintage.

Captain Cook’s Voyage

Nihal Dennis

Captain Cook’s Voyage occurred during the 1770’s it commonly seen as the beginning of European dominance and imperialism over the Asian continent. At the time of the voyages in late 1700, Captain Cook had far superior technology when compared to the native inhabitants of the Pacific Islands that his crew visited. This technological advantage, gained as a result of the scientific revolution, allowed Captain Cook and following European explorers a deep penetration into the Pacific Islands. This stronghold would lead to the decimation of many native tribes such as the Maori and the Tasmanians.

Prior to the introduction of European explorers, in 1775, a vast majority of the worlds economy was located in Asia. Sapiens author explains, “In 1775 Asia accounted for 80 percent of the world economy. The combined economies of India and China alone represented two-thirds of global production (sapiens).” Europeans were unable to make a large dent in the world economy prior to the Scientific Revolution due to a lack of Astronomical survey. However, the Muslim and Asian Empires were quite advanced. The hallmark of the European human-environment interactions during the Scientific Revolution are highlighted by a strong urge to conquer for knowledge versus conquering for wealth. European expansion in the name of academic growth can be further evidenced in the voyage of Charles Darwin and the HMS Beagle. While this mission was certainly funded by the British Royal Palace, it was not a military or warfighting evolution. These kinds of endeavors kept European expansion and imperialism at a high level after Captain Cook’s original explorations into the Pacific.

During the Scientific Revolution the most valuable currency was knowledge. This thirst for new information funded many large European voyages and missions in England, Spain and the Netherlands. These exploratory missions allowed for the dissemination of their discoveries uncovered in the New World for immense profit. The Spanish are particularly noted for their vast expansion throughout the Mexican Peninsula and what is now known as South America in search of vast amounts of gold and ‘fountains of youth’. During the early parts of this time period, the printing press allowed knowledge to be spread at a pace that was previously unimaginable in the world.

Local European resources were under a considerable amount of strain during the Scientific Revolution, prompting monarchs to fund expensive exploratory missions with the hopes of locating resources and lands suitable to grow cash crops.

Scientific Revolution governance was carried out primarily through the power of the reigning European monarch, each of which was vying for an increasing share of the “New World”. Unbeknownst to the European colonizers, much of the “New World” had been settled and charted for many thousands of years. The lack of modern convenience, as compared to the Europeans, was often a pact made by the indigenous and the local ecosystem to take only what was needed. This form of sustainable living carried the populations of Africa and the Pacific Islands for many millennia with minor mass extinctions. The governance of these lands before the arrival of European colonizers was the environmental load and the syncopation between the indigenous people and their environments

Economic expansion in the form of divine conquest played a key role in the acceleration of European power in the Scientific Revolution. Advanced Navies were critical in defeating the thousand-year-old Asian and Pacific ports. This Naval power was also important in supporting economic expansion in the form of merchant sailing and the slave trade across the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Royal Navies carried supplies and ammunition deep into conquered ports, enabling rapid expansion of the prerogatives of the prevailing monarch.

Captain Cooks Voyage has many significant outcomes. This period marks an era in humanity in which the intellectual will of the empire takes precedent over the sustainable life of humanity. In order to maintain the economic machines that the empirical banks were becoming the onset of a war for resources citizens and slaves increase. We can see this in the “discovery” and exploration of the Americas. While previous Central Asian Empires were fully aware of the existence of the American landmass they widely ignored the area because there was no economic incentive. This changes with the large banks’ armies and navies of the European Empires. These empires are also driven by the need to expand the Christian faith in the form of missionaries.

 

Fall 2019 Entries

 

The Expansion of European Maps

Time Period: Late 15th Century through long after the 16th Century AD

Andrew Heaney 

Beginning in 1492 with Columbus’ exploration to the Bahamas and continuing on for centuries, the Europeans began searching through the seas to the Americas to help contribute to then-incomplete maps as well as potentially discover “new worlds” for trade and expansion. This is something that no doubt, as Harrari states, was “one indication of the development of the scientific mindset, as well as of the European imperial drive” (Harrari, 2015).

The Spaniards and English colonists very quickly took over the lands they “claimed” in the Americas, causing massive environmental damage to the land and social tensions between the native people of the area. One massive, terrible social tension, which Harrari outright labeled as “genocide,” was the complete wiping out of the Natives in the area within the span of a few decades (Harrari, 2015). One noteworthy environmental impact the English colonists had on the Americas was the introduction of invasive species, such as the infamous Snakehead fish, which people in the Americas are still in the process of eradicating through various methods. The Snakehead was brought in later down the line as a food item for the explorers (Nuñez, Kuebbing, Dimarco, & Simberloff, 2012).

Resources were not plentiful in many of the areas that were “claimed” by white colonists. A prime example is Jamestown, which was riddled with hardships for the colonists during the first few decades of them living there. The resources that were allocated in the areas were minimal until a few decades later when more food and building supplies through more ships. (Stang & Street, 2010).

Unfortunately, the massively negative social and environmental outcomes that this exapansion and conquest led to are still felt to this day. A social example is that the Native Americans are still being mistreated and misrepresented, centuries later. An environmental example, from the Potomac and Chesapeake Estuary region, is a study that shows that “Ecological conditions in the Potomac Estuary are affected by a variety of natural and anthropogenic stressors. Natural climatic factors combined with anthropogenic activities affect fluxes of material through Potomac River watersheds and cause changes in ecological conditions in the Potomac Estuary” and that we must consider “variability and changes during the past century in the context of long-term changes during the past 500 years” (Walker, Latimer, & Dettmann, 2000). This study dives into the massive effects that the “explorers” had on the trees, aquatic flora, aquatic fauna, and other environmental factors were negsative and can be felt to this day.

References:
Harari, Y. N. (2015). Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind. Toronto, Ontario: Signal.
Nuñez, M. A., Kuebbing, S., Dimarco, R. D., & Simberloff, D. (2012). Invasive species: to eat or not to eat, that is the question. Conservation Letters, 5(5), 334-341.
Stang, K., & Street, C. (2007). Tech talk for social studies teachers: The Jamestown Colony: Access and Technology. The Social Studies, 98(3), 88-89.
Walker, H. A., Latimer, J. S., & Dettmann, E. H. (2000). Assessing the Effects of Natural and Anthropogenic Stressors in the Potomac Estuary: Implications for Long-Term Monitoring. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 63(1), 237–251. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1006412423047

Study of Astronomy

Chyna Law 

                Astronomers have focused on making discoveries about the arrangement of the solar system dating back to the times of Ancient Greece. Early astronomers such as Ptolemy theorized that the Earth was the center of the universe. This was largely believed until Copernicus proposed the currently accepted heliocentric model that placed the sun in the center of the universe instead. Another important focus had been on determining the distance between the sun and Earth. In order to measure this distance astronomers theorized that they could use trigonometry after observing Venus passing between the earth and sun. These events are known as Venus transits and were predicted to occur in 1761 and 1769 (Harari, 2014).

In order to observe these events resource systems were created and made up of teams of diverse scientists that utilized the most advanced scientific instruments of the time period. This had highly beneficial effects on the social-ecological systems because after an expedition observed the transit in 1769, they brought back substantial data in the fields of anthropology, meteorology, geography, botany, astronomy, and zoology (Harari, 2014).

The strong leadership provided by Captain James Cook, a skilled ethnographer and geographer, who was appointed by the Royal Society of London was a motivating factor in the success of this event (Harari, 2014). The economic development and resource policies played a key role in the funding of the expedition. The political stability at the time was an important part of providing the aforementioned settings. Non-extreme climate patterns also allowed the event to occur successfully. The outcome provided contributions of research to many disciplines, including the field of medicine (Harari, 2014).

References:
Harari, Y. N. (2014). Sapiens: A brief history of humankind. Toronto, Ontario: Signal.

The Conquering of the Aztecs and Incans Empires by the Europeans Effects on Foreign Environments

Carla Macuri-Cruzado 

In Sapiens, Harari talks about the scientific revolution as a movement away from ignorance. This acknowledgment that humanity does not know all about history, science, and the affairs happening around them, allowed them to fund expeditions and further scientific research. Creating a loop of power, resources, and research which only some countries took advantage of to make their nation stronger. “Science needs more than just research to make progress. It depends on the mutual reinforcement of science, politics, and economics. Political and economic institutions provide resources without which scientific research is almost impossible. In return, scientific research provides new powers that are used… to obtain new resources, some of which are reinvested in research” (Harari, 2015, p. 180).

Due to the discovery of the Americas, the scientific revolution was able to spread even further and increasing the power of the European nation. This inspired the Spanish to sail across the sea to conquer in the name of the king. However, not knowing what to expect, “they had to gather enormous amounts of new data about the geography, climate, flora, fauna, languages, cultures and history of the new continent.”(Harari, 2015, p. 207) Which is what Cortez did during his time with the Aztecs allowing for an opportunity to bring down the empire from within by influencing the people against the Aztec nation.

During the 1519s, Herman Cortez conquered over all the Aztec empire bringing down one of the greatest civilizations in the Americas. “Within a century of the landing at Vera Cruz, the native population of the Americas had shrunk by about 90 per cent…the survivors found themselves under the thumb of a greedy and racist a regime that was far worse than that of the Aztecs” (Harari, 2015, p. 212).

About ten years later, Francisco Pizarro conquered the Incan Empire in Peru by plagiarizing

what Cortez had done in Mexico. “If the subject peoples of the Inca Empire had known the fate of the inhabitants of Mexico, they would not have thrown in their lot with the invaders. But they did not know” (Harari, 2015, p. 212). Due to the effects of the Spanish conquering these empires, their survival from the the land changed, their mortality rate went down as the Spanish brought viruses with them, the ruling of these empires was taken over by the Spanish and some were even taken into slavery.

Conquering for power is affected by two major factors in the resource system (RS) and one in the resource unit (RU) of the social-ecological system. The sector (RS1), economic value (RU4) and location (RS9). The sector (RS1) is the vast land, forest, fisheries and agricultural advancements done in the Aztec and Incan empires. Not to mention that the Incan empire was next to the Pacific Ocean which allowed for the exploitation of these natural resources. The high water allowed for agriculture to be harvested there bringing forth a new agricultural method to the Aztec empire. Location (RS9) is the most important factor for obtaining power especially if one nation has military weaponry advantage. Also, the Incan had the Andes mountain as a natural barrier making the journey difficult for invaders. The Incan and Aztec empire was rich in gold and silver, which gave more motivation to Spaniards to conquer the new land putting an economic value (RU4). Location, sector and economic values were key for the conquering of the south. “Around 1517, Spanish colonists in the Caribbean islands began to hear vague rumors about a powerful empire somewhere in the center of the Mexican mainland. A mere four years later, the Aztec capital was a smouldering ruin, the Aztec Empire was a thing of the past, and Hernán Cortés lorded over a vast new Spanish Empire in Mexico” (Harari, 2015, p. 209). After the conquest of the Caribbean islands, you only had to keep going down to rule over all of what is known now as Central and South America.

Power through conquering affected the Governance system (GS) and Users(U) through government organizations (GS1), leadership /entrepreneurship (U5), and the number of users(U1). The Spanish took over the government system already stabilized by the Aztecs and Incans. Both had a polytheistic system of religion with a monarch/leader who led the empire. Compared to the Spanish who had a monotheistic religion with a monarch, both had different aspects of life and what a society should be like. Their way of life under their system would never be the same due to the European conquest. “For 300 years, Europeans enjoyed undisputed mastery in America and Oceania, in the Atlantic and the Pacific” (Harari, 2015, p. 212). According to Ostrom, leadership (U5), is when user of any type of resource system have entrepreneurial skills and are respected as local leaders (p. 421). After Cortez and Pizarro took over, they became the leaders of the new land. Which was a total change for the Incan and Aztec people, these Spanish did not know the language or customs. Yet the people were forced to change and submit to the foreign life imposed upon them. Like religion, language, customs, and architecture were some of the effects done by Spanish to the people of the Incan and Aztec empires.

Lastly, the number of users(U1), which Ostrom said the impact of group size on the transaction costs of self-organizing tends to be negative given the higher cost (p. 421). This cost is not only monetary it is also environmentally. After the Spanish arrived more of everything had to build to sustain the new growing populations. Also “money has been essential both for building empires and for promoting science” (Harari, 2015, p. 219). “Whoever believes in progress believes that geographical discoveries, technological inventions, and organizational developments can increase the sum total of human production, trade and wealth” (Harari, 2015, p. 222). All of this brought a greater impact on the environment by the increase of affluence and population with little technological advancements that could help the environment. Allowing for an increase in pollution and ecological deterioration.

Due to the interaction of these nations, there was a constant conflict among all. Which led to the ecological un-sustainability, native population deteriorating due to viruses, and the bringing of an industrial era to the new world. Some of these effects can even be seen today, as people now have become accustomed to overwhelming our environment to satisfy demand. Had the Europeans stayed within their borders, we would not be where we are today. Due to their need to conquer, grow power, knowledge, and resources, these two civilizations were brought to their knees and destroyed.

References:
Ostrom, E. (2009). A general framework for analyzing sustainability of social-ecological systems. Science,
325(5939, 419-422. http://doi.org/10.1126/science.1172133
Harari, Y. N.(2015). Sapiens: a brief history of humankind. New York: Harper.

Europe’s Rise to Power

The time period took place between 1700-1800s.

 

Europe’s rise to power came from their quest for advancements in knowledge and technologies. “European domination rested to a large extent on the military-industrial-scientific complex and technological wizardry” (Harrari, 2015). Their thirst for knowledge led them to a long and powerful journey of discovery of not only new lands they could conquer, but new technologies and scientific discoveries. They most certainly did it better than Asian countries, even without technological advantages. Harrari explains that it was Europe’s deep-rooted values, sociopolitical structures, and attitudes towards scientific ways of thinking that gave them an edge on other countries, who didn’t hold the same values.

Governance systems (GS) and Users (U) characteristics such as Government Organization (GS1) and Leadership (U5) are important in the advancement of Europe’s technology and scientific knowledge. First the government users would be the Kings and Queens who fund all the exhibitions that Europe embarked on, including ones to the Bahamas or Tasmania and Australia. This was something that for a long time no one would invest their money into because the risk factors were too high. But when a few journeys came back successful and gained Europe another territory, it became the thing to invest in. “the conquest of knowledge and the conquest of territory became ever more tightly intertwined” (Hararri, 2015). The leadership (U5), like James Cook, enabled theses exhibitions to be successful. James Cook is a great example of a leader who helped but a good name on expeditions by believing a doctor who said better nutrients for the sailors would bring them better health and they wouldn’t die during the journey (Hararri, 2015). This allowed more confidence in traveling long distances and exploring new lands.

Resource Characteristics was economic value (RU4). The economic value of these expeditions was enormous. It wasn’t always monetary value, most of the time it was land and knowledge that spurred an economic growth in Europe. The new discoveries found and brought back to Europe helped with many advancements.

This all expanded geographical maps of the world, helped increased Europe’s wealth, and advanced many scientific ideologies.

References:
Ostrom, E. (2009). A general framework for analyzing sustainability of social-ecological systems. Science,
325(5939, 419-422. http://doi.org/10.1126/science.1172133
Harari, Y. N.(2015). Sapiens: a brief history of humankind. New York: Harper.

The Secret in the Kitchen

Around 1700- late 1800s

Jonovan Peavie

The change in thinking that spurred from the scientific revolution is what allowed humanity to advance at an incredible pace. The shift from pouring the majority of a nation’s resources into religious powers, to scientific discovery and education. Modern science rose as a belief system rooted in observation, which took power out of established sources of power like a priest and into the individual. One of the main differences of modern science and any other belief system, such as religion, was an acquisition of new powers (Harari, 2014). This acquisition of new powers is seen most clearly in around 1700 Britain, with the invention of the steam engine.

The steam engine created an entirely new social climate, especially when it got refined and integrated into other parts of society. From sewing textiles, to eventually transporting people, the steam engine had almost limitless applications and it all came from changing one heat to movement (Harari, 2014). The economy exploded hand and hand with the invention as entrepreneurs developed new ways to use the technology, a relationship that is true even today. This line of thinking led us to the idea that any source of energy can be harnessed for whatever we need it to.  This absolute dominance over our environment made people value science more than ever before in most societies.

The invention didn’t come overnight. It was the culmination of knowledge and observation built on top of each other, mixed with the necessity of innovation. Britain’s population boom due to advances in medicine and agriculture was putting a strain on their environment. The local forests had been cut down to their limits to provide firewood (Harari, 2014). Coal had to be used as a substitute. The environmental damage from the steam engine is staggering. Forests have to be cut down to make room for the tracks, and the tracks themselves use resources that have to be mined. On top of that the energy used to power them has to be mined, while the air pollution that plumes out is more toxic than anything else at the time.

The outcome of this development is an ideal that technology can solve whatever problems we may come across, we just may not know exactly how yet. However, it also sets the environment as a tool for our use and development, rather than something to be protected.

References:
Harari, Y. N. (2014). Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind. Toronto, Ontario: Signal, 117-175.

The Invention of the Steam Engine

 

Olivia Garcia 

    At the turn of the 18th century, a new technology began to make waves in Europe. British engineers in the early 1700s were experimenting and creating a new heat conversion technology that would allow for a more reliable and efficient energy source than burning firewood (Harari, 2015). Coal was the new fuel source on the rise but getting to it in the mines was a difficult issue. Thus, the steam engine was born.

    The steam engine was first created for and used in coal mines. By burning coal as fuel, the steam engine was able to produce enough steam that when it “expands it pushes a piston. The piston moves, and anything that is connected to the piston moves with it” (Harari, 2015, pg. 241). This allowed for the removal of water from the deep coal mines, making coal become a more increasingly available and widespread energy source. This mechanized power continued to develop and lead to many other technology developments that all relied on its ability to convert heat into movement. This included mechanized textile production, steam-powered locomotives, and would later help to influence the idea of cars and internal combustion engines.

Steam engines relied on a steady and large resource of coal in order to function. At the time of its creation, coal mines were “plentiful and close at hand” (Harari, 2015, pg. 241). This helped to ensure that coal mining would become a huge industry that would last throughout the years. The steam engine would also remain largely a Western used technology, spreading around the world later as a result of imperialism. For example, with the use of it in trains “in 1880, the West boasted more than 220,000 miles of railroads, whereas in the rest of the world there were but 22,000 miles of train lines (and most of these were laid by the British in India)” (Harari, 2015, pg. 202). This created infrastructure that both helped with transport and trade, but also in the governance of colonies.

    The use of the steam engine “really accelerated pollution. Until then, businesses were artisan shops dispersed throughout a city. But centralized factories on a large scale meant even more air pollution” (Morrison, J. (2016)). More factories meant more economic opportunities which led to larger cities with more air pollution, waste, and densely populated areas.

Outcomes of the invention of the steam engine led to the ability for humans to switch to more efficient, though eventually problematically pollutant energy sources and the creation of mass production of goods. In addition, machines using steam engines allowed for us to become a more connected and globalized world through the ability to travel and trade further distances on land, and would ultimately lead to Western countries becoming the more dominant industrial powers in the world.

References:
Harari, Y. N. (2015). Sapiens: A brief history of humankind. Toronto, Ontario: Signal.
.Morrison, J. (2016). Air Pollution Goes Back Way Further Than You Think. The Age of Humans: Living in the Anthropocene.
Retrieved from: https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/air-pollution-goes-back-way-further-you-think-180957716/#AkCRFA04VsRTbHEl.99

DDT and Malaria

Benjamin Nolen 

In 1674, a Dutch scientist named Anton van Leeuwenhoek was the first to observe protozoa with his self-made microscope(“Antonie van Leeuwenhoek,” 2019). This discovery eventually leads to the study of microorganisms, some of which cause disease. One of these diseases, Malaria, has played an influential role in human history, but starting with the scientific revolution, the way people interacted with it and many other diseases began to change. After the disease was proven to be insect vectored, people learned that pesticide use was an effective way to control it. In the 1940s, the pesticide know as DDT was used to combat malaria and other mosquito borne illnesses in quite abundant amount (“DDT – A Brief History and Status,” n.d.). This created an interaction between humans and the sprayed environment, but also interrupted an ancient cycle of disease.

DDT was quite successful in doing its job, but it also had negative effects on wildlife resources that people often took for granted. As a bioaccumulating compound, DDT found its way in toxic concentrations to America’s most beloved bird, the bald eagle, and into may other organisms (“DDT – A Brief History and Status,” n.d.). In some instances, DDT was used to protect agricultural resources, and the preservation of one resource was held at the expense of another. This changed shortly after Racheal Carson’s book Silent Spring finally changed the social perspective on the use of DDT and raised public concern for the environment in 1962. The American government that once supported the use of DDT responded to the environmental movement of the 1970s and public concern about potential environmental and health risks by banning its use in 1972 (“DDT – A Brief History and Status,” n.d.). The overall agreed status of DDT as stated by the World Health Organization is that it should not be used except for the control of malaria, and having virtually eliminated malaria from the country, it was safe to do so(“DDT – A Brief History and Status,” n.d.).

Economic interests in agriculture made DDT popular because of its ability to increase crop yields and prevent loss from pests, and media influences back in middle 20th century advertised DDT as a harmless chemical that had no negative effects whatsoever (Oatman-Stanford, 2012). The popularity and overall massive use of DDT as a miracle pesticide did extraordinarily pollute the environment with a persistent chemical agent, but this vast contamination would come to be the major causative factor in its banning (“DDT – A Brief History and Status,” n.d.).

There are two outcomes of this interaction between humans and the environment as it relates to the control of disease. First, the chemical damaged the environmental and will have negative effects on wildlife wherever it is chosen to be used. More interesting however, is the effect this has on various other human-environment interactions. Virtually eliminating malaria and other diseases in the age of medicine, extends human life span. This can equate to more years that a single person has to consume and use the earths resources. Breaking the natural cycle of disease has essentially increased the burden that a single person puts upon the environment, and therefore speeds up the process by which many negative interactions degrade it.

 

References:
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek [Commercial]. (2019, October 7). Retrieved from Encyclopedia Britannica website: https://www.britannica.com/biography/Antonie-van-Leeuwenhoek
DDT – A Brief History and Status [Government]. (n.d.).
Oatman-Stanford, H. (2012, August 22). What Were We Thinking? The Top 10 Most Dangerous Ads [Commercial]. Retrieved from Collectors Weekly website: https://www.collectorsweekly.com/articles/the-top-10-most-dangerous-ads/

The First Atomic Bomb

Rilee Hupart 

The scientific revolution officially began in the 1500s. It’s the time period of new discoveries of technology, science and math.  One of the greatest achievements was the progress of military weapons. One that would change military decisions forever (Harari, 2014).

According to Harari, “the single most remarkable and defining moment of the past 500 years came at 05:29:45 on 16 July 1945. At that precise second, American scientists detonated the first atomic bomb at Alamogordo, New Mexico. From that point onward, humankind had the capability not only to change the course of history, but to end it.” The historic process that led to the first bomb is known as the scientific revolution (Harari, 2014).

During this time the government and wealthy people invested in education thinking they were continuing things as they already existed. They didn’t realize that in doing so they allowed individuals to discover new medicines, invent weapons, and grow the economy. During the last 500 years, governments and individuals invested in scientific research which allowed splitting of the atom. In the last couple centuries billions of dollars have been invested in research of nuclear physics (Harari, 2014).

Because of the investments, the research gave us the ability to build nuclear power stations, which give us a source of cheap electricity, which pays taxes to the government and some of those taxes are used for further research and development of nuclear projects. Science needs political institutes to support and fund research. The research then provides new powers to get new resources. Through the new resources, investments can be made in other projects (Harari, 2014).

Eventually the Americans developed the atomic bomb that was later used when we invaded Japan. “The nuclear physicist Robert Oppenheimer, upon seeing the explosion, quoted from the Bhagavadgita: ‘Now I am become Death, the destroyer of worlds.’”. As a result of the development of the atomic bomb, we now have other nuclear weapons which keeps superpowers like America in check and from world domination through military efforts (Harari, 2014).

References:
Harari, Y. N. (2014). Sapiens: A brief history of humankind. Toronto, Ontario: Signal.