about 10,000 years ago

 

Spring 2020 Entries

 

 

 Establishing a Common Currency

 

The change from the barter system to common currency occurred first in Sumer around 3000 BC (Harari, 2014).  At this point in time, the used currency was barley, so this universal form of payment was still a useful resource, making the shift from bartering to payment more gradual.  Once Mesopotamians made the switch to silver as a form of currency and payment, this marked the point in time where people became less connected to the land and its resources.  Silver had no inherent value, so the only value it had was the trust and value people gave it- it was cultural (Harari, 2014).  From this point onwards, the shift went from metals to coins with set currencies, but never back to useful resources.

Harari (2014) states that “money is based on two universal principles: convertibility and trust” (p. 134).  The establishment of a common currency required that it be easier to exchange for goods compared to a barter system, and that people had to place trust in it for it to work.  Because communities were beginning to increase in size and people were more often encountering strangers, a system of barter or trade of favors could no longer be implemented due to lack of trust as well as the introduction of new goods that may not have been originally available in such a specialized area.  This shift gave people the ability to acquire new resources through long distance transactions, therefore diversifying communities.

The idea of a universal currency spread quickly because it could be easily stored and transported, and money could convert any item into something else (Harari, 2014).  The governance systems at this time were cities and communities often ruled by kings and high priests.  Economic development and demographic trends played a large role in the switch from a barter system to universal currency due to a need for set values of goods and services, as well as an increase in population of these cities.  As a result of this switch, people became more dependent upon money rather than the resources themselves.  Money could buy them anything they needed, and this idea caused more of a separation between mankind and nature, but unified mankind through a common currency.

Works Cited:

Harari, Y. N. (2014). Sapiens: A brief history of humankind. Toronto, Ontario: Signal.

 

Coin Currency

640 BC

Joey

The concept of money developed from a form of currency dating all the way back to hunter-gatherer days called bartering. When bartering showed flaws involving the storing, transporting, and comparing of value, a unified system that would solve all these problems eventually manifested. The earliest form of coin currency was found as early as 640 BC in western Anatolia (Harari, 2015). It adapted from realizing the use of barley was too inefficient. Silver was too soft for tools and people were unable to eat it or wear it. Silver then became a useful resource to extract that would later develop in the system of coin currency. Marking silver as opposed to weighing when bartering then made things more measurable. Because of the development of the coin currency, people were able to put a price on their items. Coins, with their standardized weights, eliminated the time-consuming problem of weighing silver and gold (Millman 2015). Because of its coastal placement on the globe, Lydia was the perfect place to start a commerce culture. It also made the exchange of goods a lot easier through a similar form of communication, the law.

Coins were implied to be certified by the ruler/ruling government. This meant that forging its value was a form of treasonous crime. Disobeying this law meant disobeying the king. An action that can be punishable by torture or/and death (Harari, 2015). It brought about a globalized idea of trust. Because of its legitimacy, people were united in trusting the system of currency. Harari also mentions the dark side of trusting the system and not the person. While this unified the people into exchanging goods from far off places under a common measurement, I think it also created a sense of greed. I think having the concept of stored wealth has made people accustomed to hoarding it for selfish security reasons. Since wealth can now follow a reliable form of conversion, it is reasonable to say people will interact more on self-driven motivations.

One of the main effects of a common currency is economic development. Despite sharing very little forms of communication, beliefs, and religions, everyone believed in silver and gold coins (Harari, 2015). Because of coins, resources from all over the world were able to be spread out among different regions in the globe through transportation. Places that didn’t have certain goods can now acquire them through the payment of coins. This prompted the economy to drive towards supply and demand.

Through this growth, the demand for certain resources has made consumers feel entitled to the supply. Because the population is growing under the system of supply and demand, resources are rapidly depleting to meet the required wants of the growing numbers of people. The seemingly perpetual history of class systems has also shown the maldistribution of wealth. As the rich get richer, the poor stay poorer. The only thing separating them from each other is money. The unification of humankind through money has ironically left its members more isolated and more selfish.

 

References

Millman, E. (2015, March 27). The Importance of the Lydian Stater as the World’s First Coin. Retrieved February 25, 2020, from https://www.ancient.eu/article/797/the-importance-of-the-lydian-stater-as-the-worlds-/

Harari, Y. N. (2015). Sapiens: A Brief History of Humans. Retrieved from https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/blackboard.learn.xythos.prod/5a30bcf95ea52/18266599?response-content-disposition=inline;filename*=UTF-8”Sapiens-A-Brief-History-of-Humankind%281%29.pdf&response-content-type=application/pdf&X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Date=20200218T184454Z&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&X-Amz-Expires=21600&X-Amz-Credential=AKIAIL7WQYDOOHAZJGWQ/20200218/us-east-1/s3/aws4_request&X-Amz-Signature=3cda3731caf9d99bed62cf023f3664245ffcd34ba6710ca46b78468d50157b32

1918 H1N1 Influenza Epidemic

 

Nearing the end of the second decade of the 20^th century as one war was winding down, a second was just about to begin. One that was far deadlier than the first. That second war was an outbreak of the H1N1 strain of Influenza which in the end killed more people then “The war to end all wars”. (CDC)

Whilst reading the chapters of the third section I was surprised by the choices that the author had chosen for the topic of globalization, however throughout the chapters it made a lot of sense of why and how the author chose the topics of Money, Religion, and Private Ownership. Now that does not mean that other topics were not brought up such as the discussion on how the spread of people, thoughts, and Money also spread disease such as what I plan on talking about today in this paper.

Disease is a constant fear that many holds in the back of their heads since the beginning of mankind’s journey from East Africa to the modern age. Outbreaks of plaques have been consistent throughout history however there has been one far deadlier in the scope of modern history: The 1918 Influenza Outbreak, also known as the Spanish Flu.

Influenza on its own is not very lethal only lethal to a fraction of a percent of the population predominantly which are young children and the elderly. However, this strain H1N1 was unfortunately far more lethal than first expected as it had a terrible tendency to kill healthy, young to older adults as well as children and the elderly. (CDC) This strain of Influenza had infected an estimated 500 million people with a mortality rate of about 10% putting lower estimates of the death toll at around 50 million deaths. (CDC) Much of the spread of the influenza virus was attributed to the first world war as millions of soldiers would be in absolutely incomprehensibly bad condition in close proximity with each other on both sides of the trenches, Allies or Central. Due to this the virus spread throughout the soldiers then when they were sent home, allowed the virus to spread in pockets throughout the world.

Another reason the virus was so lethal was the lack of existence of preventative means to stop it, with the technology of the time health officials could only “isolate, quarantine, promote good personal hygiene, use disinfectants, and limit public gatherings”. (CDC) At this time there was no Vaccines or Antibiotics as they were not invented yet. (CDC)

Hopefully in the future with modern technology we as a species may continue to adapt to the everchanging battle against infectious diseases so those who come after us can avoid a life of uncertainty with the killers that we cannot see.

 

Work Cited

1918 Pandemic (H1N1 virus). (2019, March 20). Retrieved February 25, 2020, from https://www.cdc.gov/flu/pandemic-resources/1918-pandemic-h1n1.html

 

The French Revolution

 

The French Revolution began in 1784 with the storming of the Bastille. (Harari, 2015) After a farming season that resulted in a low crop yield, mobs of starving people shouted for liberty, equality, and fraternity. Their ruler, King Louis XVI was rightfully scared, as it was his greed and vanity that caused the starvation of his kingdom’s families. He tried to flee France in 1791, but was caught and forced to agree to a new form of government. (Harari, 2015) From 1791-1792, France was ruled by a legislative assembly, then transformed into the National Convention. (Harari, 2015) The Republic of France was declared and Louis XVI was put on trial and sentenced to death in 1793. (Harari, 2015) The following 6 weeks accounted for the beheading of 1,400 more people who were seen as a threat to the new Republic. (Harari, 2015)

However, the ideals that the french were demanding are not compatible. Liberty, or in other words, individuality, is reliant on inequality. One’s ability to do as they please will inevitably result in the oppression of another, while equality is ensured by those who are better off. This is one example of cognitive dissonance present in the collective unconscious. These values of individual freedom and equality spread to America and inspired the American Revolution, and as these ideals spread, so did the fall of monarchy, the rise of the middle class, and the rise of Nationalism. (National Archives, nd.)

Nationalism is defined as loyalty and devotion to a nation, especially a sense of national consciousness exalting one nation above all others and placing primary emphasis on promotion of its culture and interests as opposed to those of other nations. (Merriam-Webster, nd.) This is an extremely relevant topic in the US today as we see white nationalists become ever more prevalent, even being described by Donald Trump as “very fine people”.  We are still seeing remnants of the ideals spread through the French Revolution. We are hearing cries for equality in the form of the environmental movement, the women’s movement, the LGBTQ+ movement, the student debt crisis, the healthcare crisis, and the housing crisis. We are seeing demands that immigrants and POC be given equal and fair treatment from our government, basic human rights taken for granted by most of the upper class. People are demanding an increase in the minimum wage as trickle-down-economics indeed have not trickled their way down, down, down to the lower and ever-lowering classes. As the middle class disappears, so rises another revolution. While on the opposing side of the revolution stands the bourgeoisie refusing to have their individuality and way of life challenged.

 

Citations:

Harari, Yuval Noah. (2015.) Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind. New York: Harper.

National Archives. “French Revolution.” The National Archives, The National Archives, 13 Feb. 2015, www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/education/resources/french-revolution/.

Merriam-Webster. “Nationalism.” Merriam-Webster, Merriam-Webster, www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/nationalism.

Fall 2019 Entries

 

     As early as the first millennium BC, civilizations have had certain orders that have remained the same until now. In Sapiens: A Brief History of Mankind by Yuval Noah Harari, there are three universal orders that he mentions: the monetary order, the imperial order, and the religious order. The first of these, the monetary, relies on a universal mutual trust between everyone using it. Harari even says, “money is the most universal and most efficient system of mutual trust ever devised” (Harari, 2014, p. 130). But this trust was not instantaneous–it took a ” very complex and long-term network of political, social and economic relations” before it was widely used (Harari, 2014, p. 130).

The earliest form of money was the bartering system used by hunter-gatherers, this form allowed small, close communities to provide each other with services or goods of “equal worth.” Next, was the exchange of goods such as barley that had some inherent value still. Then, around the third millennium BC, the silver shekel was introduced to ancient Mesopotamia. This silver shekel was significant because it was the first form of money that had no inherent value. It was purely cultural. It’s value was based entirely on the trust of the populations that used it. It shaped the social-ecological system because it finally gave humans the ability to easily transport money and create set prices on items. Rather than trying to say a shoemaking service is worth 5 apples, 4 bowls of barely, or anything else, the shoemaker could easily tell everyone that their service is worth 7 pieces of silver.

Of course this phenomenon was only possible due to the civilization’s availability of resources and good financial standing. For the shekel to be widely accepted, the king himself had to give political authority to the value and worth of the coins, as well as enforce consequences for anyone who disagrees or tries to make counterfeits. For the coins themselves to be made, they must have had enough resources, including silver, to mass produce the currency. Often used in ancient Israel, the shekel also faces the problem of not being accepted in other countries.

Despite these problems, the creation of the shekel was the first step to universal trust in currency. This interaction would only lead to better, more widely used forms of currency such as paper bills. Even today’s money is based off of an even higher level of trust–digital banking. Humans no longer need to carry around anything to pay for items except a card or phone. From barley, to shekels, to a simple click of a button, the money we use today still is based off of that mutual understanding and trust of its value.

Reference:

Harari, Y.N. (2014). Sapiens: A brief history of humankind. Toronto, Ontario: Signal.

Silencing the Lambs

Emily Bee

The emergence and movement toward monotheistic and polytheistic religions from animism occurred around the beginning of polytheistic religions to the birth of Christianity, 5,000 BC to 1 CE. Many tribes living a nomadic lifestyle were animist and worshiped things such as plants and animals. For example, people from the Indus Valley may have forbidden the hunting of white-tailed foxes, because a white-tailed fox once revealed to a wise old woman where the band might find precious obsidian (Harari, 2014, p.152). As we switched to a more agricultural lifestyle people became greedier and wanted more control over plants and animals instead of being one with them such as the animist. (Harari, 2014, p.153). Humans become more interested in Gods to give more power to safeguard their herd and crops. Especially since the animals could no longer give the information we originally received from them.

The resource system of agriculture, with an ecological approach, takes more out of the land and causes ecosystem damage due to the grazing of animals and farming. Animals used to be a valuable resource in animism, for example, the Native American culture preached using every part of the animal and it was always thanked for providing meat and resources to the tribe. However, since the agricultural revolution, animals and crops became an everyday commodity. Socially, with a settled lifestyle and a growth in population there comes a class system where individuals are assigned certain roles to keep the population alive and growing.

The governance systems of these new religious societies goes back to the issue of class systems within the population. The social divide became greater due to a more stable lifestyle and constant availability of foods. People now needed set jobs and roles instead of the whole clan hunting together. Religion was also such an important aspect in their lives that the priests and clergy were practically at the same level of the kings. They could use their “divine” power to rule the people and their explanation could simply be that the gods had destined them to do so.

Resource policies played a big part in how religion evolved with the emergence of agriculture. People believed if they prayed to the gods or God then they will receive better crops and healthier livestock (Harari, 2014, p.153). They’re policy was simply to not upset the gods and in turn you’ll get everything you prayed for. The kings and the clergyman continued to keep this policy up with the continued use of sacrifices and use of their so-called divine power.

The outcomes of this emergence of religion due to agriculture has mostly negative but some positive repercussions. Positively, it can be taken as a connection between people and give a sense of community within their religious beliefs. The negative social effects of this new way of life include a rift between separate religions and religious warfare, for example the St Bartholomew’s Day Massacre (Harari, 2014, p.156). There was also a loss of touch with the outdoors, an increase in greed and a divide in hierarchy of the population. Ecologically, the emergence of agriculture and religion increased our effects on climate change which lead to the downfall of many powerful empires such as the Maya and Easter Island.

References:

Harari, Y. N. (2014). Sapiens: A brief history of humankind. New York: Harper.

Money Unifying Mankind

Ray Zhang

There are many different cultures and societies across the globe, each with their own unique aspects that set them apart from one another, however there is one thing that connects every single person from every single different culture and that is money. Money first developed to deal with the rise of empires. As more people gathered in one place, market places would have trouble with bartering as it would become way to complicated (Harari 2014). Money became the only way for a complex economy to form. People began to use currency as a form of trade rather than bartering for thousands of years and it has allowed complete strangers from across the world to come together and cooperate with one another. Money has let people exchange goods and services with one another on a level that bartering could never achieve and it has brought people together to work towards a common goal (Harari 2014).

There are three big ways human-environment interactions were affected by money. At the most basic and early ages, people used things they valued that they found in the environment as a form of money. These natural materials ranged from ancient cowry shells to the illustrious gold and silver metals (Harari 2014). These were all things that humans would need to salvage from their surrounding environment. Another way it affected humans’ interactions with the environment is that it could be a reason that drove many people across the globe in the chase for more “money” or how money was used between differing nations. Two great examples would be how in the 1500’s the conquistadors landed in an empire across the globe in search of more gold, and how during the first century India would accept coins from the faraway Rome (Harari 2014). Money would also bring supplies dug up from humans from one side of the world to another, such as the great Silk Road, as merchants would bring many types of goods from one side of the continent to another. Lastly, money allowed a way for humans to come together as strangers and work towards a common goal as long as they both shared the same views on money. It introduced a powerful idea that the “other people”, who have vastly different world views and opinions, can come and share the same belief in money (Harari 2014). This way of coming together despite multitudes of differences paved a way for people to work together and alter the environment on a common ground.

Money is mainly affected by three resource systems in social-ecological systems (SES), clarity of system boundaries (RS2), size of resource systems (RS3), and storage characteristics (RS8) (Ostrom 2009). Money is limited to a system with people who all share the same trust in that specific money system (Harari 2014). People from one kingdom may use coins printed by their treasury while another empire will use various goods as a form of money. If other people do not trust in that specific money system, then that money is bounded in that area. The size of those resource systems is very dependent on those shared beliefs but more importantly they can vary over time. A perfect example is when there was a different value of gold between India and the Mediterranean. The Mediterranean valued gold much more highly than India and merchants would take advantage of that and buy gold in India and sell it in the Mediterranean (Harari 2014). Eventually the Indians began to value gold much more highly solely because the Mediterranean’s valued it highly and the price would begin to equalize. (Harari 2014). This would change the size of the gold’s resource system to not only expand in its influence but also to raise its price in India, changing the social-ecological system in India (Harari 2014). Another resource system that vitally affects money is its storage characteristics. Money has always been a way to make it easier to store and transport your worth. In the beginning things such as salt, grain, skins, or shells were used as money. Currency would get smaller and more easily transportable as time went on. Empires would begin to print out coins or give out notes as a form of money. This way people would not need to deal with worrying about keeping their currency in good condition or any upkeep costs. Things would eventually become easier and easier as modern-day, humans now keep most of their money electronically.

There are several important governance systems and user characteristics to the usage of money. Government organizations (GS1), operational rules (GS5), and number of users (U1) (Ostrom 2009). Money has always been backed up by specific government organizations. Any government or empire that decides to print out bills or coins are using their word to back up the monetary value of their currency (Harari 2014). The operational rules of money are also supported by whatever government that is using them. That government dictates how much value the currency is and how exchanging the currency works. The number of users affects money. The less people use that type of money the less powerful and usable it is. The more people that use it means it has a wider area of usage and places it is accepted.

The use of money was able to affect the world’s economic development and different empires political stability. When humans were still living as hunter-gatherers or in small villages, people were stuck participating in small marketplaces. The amount of goods and traders was very limited, so the economy was very basic (Harari 2014). Once humans began to gather into larger towns and cities with more people, a more complex economic system began to develop, and money was at the center of it all (Harari 2014). Money acted as a basis for a complex commercial system as it was the most efficient way for people to trade goods and services (Harari 2014). Money was also a force that allowed kings and rulers to stabilize their rule over their kingdoms. For example, money allowed the Roman empire to maintain its rule over its inhabitants (Harari 2014). Instead of collecting taxes and paying salaries in food or goods to its people across its vast empire, money allowed them to efficiently deal with many of its problems (Harari 2014).

There are two main outcomes of the uprising of money. It is how it allowed humans to exchange money for anything else, and how it allowed people to build a universal trust between one another over money (Harari 2014). On one hand strangers from across the world were able to cooperate with one another, however on another hand money was able to place a price on many invaluable things, such as ideas, beliefs, and love. People could essentially sell their morality away for money. People can view money in many different ways, as good or evil, however in the end it is the cold hard truths of the marketplace that wins out in the end.

Reference:

Harari, Y. N. (2014). Sapiens: A brief history of humankind. Toronto, Ontario: Signal, 117-175

Ostrom, E. (2009), A general framework for analyzing sustainability of social-ecological systems. Science, 325(5939), 419-422. http://doi.org/10.1126/science.1172133

The Monetary Order

Diana Reyes

The unification of mankind was started by three Universal orders first appearing in the first millennium BC. The three universal orders are the monetary order, the imperial order, and the order of universal religions. This assignment focuses on the first universal order to appear which was the monetary order. This was an economic development that brought the use of standardized money unlike the old system of bartering. This could be considered “the most important stage of global unification that has occurred in the last few centuries” (Harari, 2014).  The monetary order allowed empires to grow and trade to intensify even more. Weather we want to admit it or not money makes the world go round. According to Harari, it’s the greatest conqueror in history.

The world first known money appeared in Sumer around 3000 BC. Before then bartering was the way goods and services were exchanged. This posed a problem though as populations grew and the number of products being exchanged between different peoples grew. You can not grow a complex world economy based on bartering. Money works because of universal convertibility and universal trust. It has a set non-intrinsic value and everyone always wants money. Money is a universal medium that can be exchanged for anything any place in this world as well as easily stored. Many valuables that were used before the monetary order could be stored easily or for very long. Without money there would be no world economy or global trade.

References:

Harari, Y.N. (2014). Sapiens: A brief history of humankind. Toronto, Ontario: Signal.

Ostrom, E. (2009), A general framework for analyzing sustainability of social-ecological systems. Science, 325(5939), 419-422. http://doi.org/10.1126/science.1172133

Money and the Unification of Mankind

Time Period: literally always

Emily Bohr

In Sapiens: a brief History of Mankind by Yuval Noah Harari, he outlines three major themes in the unification of mankind: money, religion and empires. Money is the most interesting, simply because of how it evolved. Like Harari says, “money was created many times in many places”, meaning that it’s almost always existed, even if it wasn’t called “money”(Harari 2014).

Money began with bartering, or trading. Imagine this: Sally grows corn, and Johnny grows apples, but Sally wants apples because they taste good, and Johnny wants corn because it makes cornmeal. Instead of both Sally and Johnny only having what they grow, they decide to trade the fruits of their labor (literally). So, Sally “buys” 5 apples from Johnny in exchange for 2 ears of corn, and during this transaction, Johnny technically “bought” 2 ears of corn from Sally for the measly price of 5 apples! Soon, trading/bartering turned into trading shells, and the more shells you had, the “richer” you were. And then soon, this turned to coins, then to dollars, then eventually into electronic data that is “basically.. A figment of [societies] collective imagination” Money is basically, in and of itself, nothing, just like those mentioned above. It can be anything, and the value that it placed on it as nothing to do with the actual value, similar to apple and corn. We don’t know the exchange rate of apples to corn, and vice versa. (Andrew Beattie, 2019)But Johnny felt that 2 ears of corn was worth 5 apples, maybe more. And if I thought I could put this thought into better words, I would, but from Harari,

“Money is accordingly a system of mutual trust, and not just any system of mutual

trust: money is the most universal and most efficient system of mutual trust ever

devised.” (Harari 2014).

Money affected the social-ecological system by establishing a universal trust, which is what made the modern society what it is today. It has made it so that billions of people across the globe can have a mutual understanding and coordination in regards to. Money is possibly the only thing that can close the gap between almost any person of any race, gender, religion, age, political affiliation or sexual orientation. The outcome of the interaction would be the entire economy, on all levels, all across the world. Whether or not the location is advanced enough to have electronic money, and even Bitcoin, or if it’s a remote island where the inhabitants don’t interact with the outside world, money of some sort is most likely the backbone of the society.

References:

Andrew Beattie. (2019). The History Of Money: From Barter To Banknotes. Retrieved October 1, 2019, from Investopedia website: https://www.investopedia.com/articles/07/roots_of_money.asp

Harari, Y. N. (2014). Sapiens: A brief history of humankind. Toronto, Ontario: Signal, pgs 125-135

Food and the Unification of Mankind

Time Period: ~400-600 years ago (1400s-1600s)

 

In Sapiens by Yuval Noah Harari, he outlines three major themes in the unification of mankind: money, religion and empires. Perhaps one of the most interesting examples of this event occurring in history is in the development of so called “ethnic foods.” For instance, when we go to an Italian restaurant, we expect pasta with tomato sauce, when in fact, tomatoes are native to Mexico. In the same respect, we associate chocolate with the Swiss, when in fact, cocoa was, indeed, also native to Mexico (Harari 2014). These types of historical interactions are examples of the Columbian Exchange, which greatly changed what people around the world grew and ate. Another prime example of this phenomenon is the introduction of potatoes from South America to Europe (Carter, J. and Warren, R., 2016).

Specifically looking at the history of chocolate, its’ origins can be traced to the South American empire of the Aztecs. Prior to the arrival of the Spanish in the Americas, chocolate played a significant role in the rituals and customs of the Aztecs, ranging from formal ceremonies to weddings and even as a reward for bravery in combat. Furthermore, “Chocolate in the Mexica world was associated with status within a deeply stratified society. One of the privileges of status was special, perhaps exclusive, access to chocolate,” (Norton, 2004).

The first European encounter with chocolate was in 1502 in Christopher Columbus’ fourth voyage to the Americas. However, chocolate did not appear back in Europe until nearly 20 years later. However, the good that made its’ way to Spain was vastly different than the Aztecs had known. Chocolate in South America was somewhat bitter, but the chocolate in Europe was a much sweeter treat. There is debate whether it was intentionally changed, but it may have evolved over time just out of convenience. Still, by the 17^th Century, chocolate was featured in royal ceremonies throughout Europe. By 1727, the Spanish city of Madrid has over 700,000 pounds of chocolate, perhaps, a just metaphor not only for the unification of mankind, but also for the assimilation of cultures into that of the west in particular (Norton, 2004).

References:

Carter, J. and Warren, R. (2016). Forging the Modern World: A History. Oxford, England. Oxford University Press), 24-27.

Harari, Y. N. (2014). Sapiens: A brief history of humankind. Toronto, Ontario: Signal, 117-175.

Norton, M. (2004). Conquests of Chocolate. OAH Magazine of History, 18(3), 14-17.

Colliding worlds

 

Around 10,000 BC there were thousands of isolated human worlds. Civilizations all over the planet were unaware of other societies due to spatial demography. The transportation revolution was far down the road of history to help people emigrate to continents overseas. However, as populations grew, the more they spread out across their own continents creating larger civilizations. Around 1450 AD there were five main human worlds: Mesoamerica, the Andean world, the Australian world, Oceania and Afro- Asia. The Afro- Asian world contained almost 90% of the world’s population in most of Europe, Asia and Africa, which was “already connected by significant cultural, political and economic ties.” (P. 121, Harari) In the 1500s to early 1800 the Afro- Asian world consumed all other worlds and spread their influence across the planet. Spanish conquistadors took over the Aztec empire in Mesoamerica early 1500s. Not long after the Andean world collapsed when the Spanish conquered the Inca Empire. Europeans also started to colonize in the Oceanic world and the Australian world within the same 300-year period. Finally, Britain’s settled in Tasmania “bringing the last autonomous human world into the Afro Asian sphere of influence.” (P. 121, Harari) Historians and scholars have speculated how this globalization was intensified during this period. There are many factors to consider with some still argued today. However, many agree that some of the biggest factors had to do with the appearance of three universal orders: the monetary order, the imperial order and the religious order. While these phenomena were connecting people all over the world, they were also dividing them and causing irreversible social, political and environmental change.

The desire for riches was found in most human worlds. To many, money was power. Although, money is not just coins or dollar bills. It is “anything people are willing to use in order to represent systematically the value of other things for the purpose of exchanging goods and services.” (P. 127, Harari) Some societies used a bartering system using currencies such as shells, cattle, skins, salt, grain, cloth and more. Other societies based their way of living on metals such as gold or silver. When the Aztec Empire collapsed at the hands of Spanish conquistadors, it was for the abundance of gold these natives had but never valued the way they did. It was a thirst for riches and power, which led to many bloody and devastating wars. The Afro Asian world desired more: more riches, more land, more power. This greed destroyed prospering societies and environments. Gold mining become a growing industry that “ravaged landscapes, contaminated water supplies, and contributed to the destruction of vital ecosystems.” (Gold Mining and…) Although, some societies became connected with others over the common desire for money. These places shared common currency, which created trading opportunities that would help each other’s economies grow. Other civilizations soon adopted similar economic strategies for the purpose of prosperity. Some people believed in money because their neighbor, king or priest did. Thereby causing a chain reaction where more and more people valued money as a means to live and thrive. One driving factor leading to societies merging with or conquering others had to do with aspirations for economic development, which was influenced by market incentives. The author Harari points out that, “Without money, commercial networks and markets would have been doomed to remain very limited in their size, complexity and dynamism.” (P. 129) Harari also argues that trust was needed for people to value the currency being used. Governing bodies such as Kings were often the people who declared some sort of currency to have real intrinsic value. “As long as people trusted the power and integrity of the king, they trusted his coins. Total strangers could easily agree on the worth of a Roman denarius coin, because they trusted the power and integrity of the Roman emperor, whose name and picture adorned it.” (P. 132, Harari) Trading networks began to appear when supplies and demands for goods were being shared globally. The Afro Asian world influenced economic and political ties around the world by spreading the belief of a monetary order.

The Imperial order similarly connected and divided people and borders. Many powerful empires could be found in every part of the world. Empires are typically characterized by their flexible borders and cultural diversity. However, “empires were one of the main reasons for the drastic reduction in human diversity.” (P. 138, Harari) Cultural imperialism is evident when studying powerful empires and their influence on less powerful societies. More developed civilizations would gradually determine general cultural values and societal standards. Harari explains that “empires have managed to unite diverse ethnic groups and ecological zones under a single political umbrella, thereby fusing together larger and larger segments of the human species and of planet Earth.” (P. 137) The movement of people and ideals has established unique new expressions and increased cultural hybridity. Most empires favored this because it meant their sphere of influence was expanding and so too was their power. Although, many rulers were authoritarians who persecuted those who did not submit to the rules of the land. Often people subjugated to rulers were conquered people once apart of another culture and empire. Thus, political stability was never easy. The author, Harari, asserts that “building and maintaining an empire usually required the vicious slaughter of large populations and the brutal oppression of every-one who was left.” (P. 139) Winning wars was profitable, which helped fund art, philosophy and other cultural achievements. Ironically, these achievements brought people together even though it stemmed from the oppression of other people. However, these wars always turned stable environments into smoldering ruins. Armies raided and looted cities out of lust for power and blood without consideration of the land and valuable nature around them. “Sapiens instinctively divide humanity into two parts, ‘we’ and ‘they’.” (P. 141, Harari) The author points this out to convey that people thought ‘they’ were “barley even humans” (P.141) and didn’t deserve respect of their culture or territories. Therefore, laying ruin to ‘their’ land or homes was inevitable for not being apart of a ‘we’.

Historically religion has unified people and at the same time has been a source for disunion. Often enough, social stability relied on religion. “Religions assert that our laws are not the result of human caprice, but are ordained by an absolute and supreme authority.” (P. 151, Harari) The idea that an all powerful and all knowing superhuman or entity was watching over people while also directing people towards a “brighter” future was inviting to many. For example, after the agricultural revolution people would sacrifice animals “to divine powers, who in exchange promised abundant harvests and fecund flocks.” (P. 153, Harari) Religion sometimes drove people to wage wars or discriminate against others as well. On the other hand, Harari expressed that polytheists like the Egyptians, Aztecs and Romans conquered huge empires, but they did not try to convert their subjects. According to the reading, polytheists were often tolerant of other gods believed by different societies. However, “the only god that the Romans long refused to tolerate was the monotheistic and evangelizing god of the Christians.” (P. 155, Harari) The Roman Empire did not make Christians throw away their beliefs, but it was expected that they respect their gods and accept the divinity of the emperor. When they refused, persecution ensued. Although, historically Christians killed more Christians than polytheists because of differing interpretations of the religion. (P. 155, Harari) For example, wars between Catholics and Protestants occurred across Europe in the 1500s and 1600s killing hundreds of thousands of people. In contrast, most religions created missionaries for the sake of spreading their gods word and connecting people through their religion peacefully.

In conclusion, these three universal orders have unified and influenced every human world. While religion, money and imperialism all caused blood shed at some point due to disagreements, they also created cultural hybridity and political order. The environments in which everyone resided changed due to mass movements of people and belief systems. A lot of the time people in this 300-year period did not know much or care much about the benefits of the resources provided by the natural world. Instead, people were driven by desires to expand and spread their values and ideals where they could. “Looking at the bigger picture, though, the transition from many small cultures to a few large cultures and finally to a single global society was probably an inevitable result of the dynamics of human history.” (P. 171, Harari)

References:

Gold Mining and the Environment. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.brilliantearth.com/gold-mining-environment/.

Harari, Y. N. (2014). Sapiens: A brief history of humankind. Toronto, Ontario: Signal, 117-175.